Epictetus (c. 50 – 135 AD) serves as a foundational master of Stoic philosophy, whose teachings on freedom of mind still echo throughout the centuries. Born into slavery, Epictetus overcame harsh circumstances to become a respected Stoic master whose teachings—recorded by his student Arrian—still teach and inspire people today. Unfortunately, modern references to “stoicism” are often inaccurate and faulty. Epictetus’s Discourses and Enchiridion serve as the original texts that cut to the core of how to live with clarity and integrity in a complicated world.
Life and Background
Epictetus is of Greek background, born in Hierapolis (in present-day Turkey) and taken to Rome as a slave. There, he served Epaphroditus, an influential freedman in Emperor Nero’s home. Despite his status as a slave, Epictetus pursued philosophy, studying under his Stoic teacher Musonius Rufus—a key influence on his approach to ethics.
Importantly, as a former slave, Epictetus was likely illiterate or had very limited literacy. He also had a physical disability, a crippled leg—which he alluded to in his teachings. Yet, this did not prevent him from becoming a brilliant and influential teacher, and key figure in Stoicism. He mastered Stoic philosophy through learning, memorization, and yes discourses (as we call his book today) —demonstrating that wisdom need not depend on the written word. After gaining his freedom, Epictetus founded his own school in Nicopolis, where he taught verbally, using discussion, debate, and socratic seminar (Socratic ie from Socrates, the classic Greek philosopher whom he respected). His teachings were later written down by his student, whose careful notes became the Discourses and the concise Enchiridion (meaning Handbook in Greek, essentially the ancient cliffnotes from class lectures. Arrian’s friends and classmates surely appreciated them as much as we appreciate Enchiridion now).
What Did Epictetus Actually Teach?
Unlike many modern summaries, Epictetus’s writings are not simply about “being strong” or “embracing challenges.” They are precise, methodical explorations of human psychology and moral codes. Let’s look at the core themes that run through his Discourses and Enchiridion:
Impressions (Phantasiai)
Epictetus taught that every moment we’re confronted with impressions—raw experiences, feelings, or thoughts that flood into our minds. These are automatic and not within our control. The key, he argued, is to pause and examine them:
“So make a practice at once of saying to every strong impression: ‘An impression is all you are, not the source of the impression.’ Then test and assess it with your criteria, but one primarily: ask, ‘Is this something that is, or is not, in my control?’ And if it’s not one of the things that you control, be ready with the reaction, ‘Then it’s none of my concern.’
— Enchiridion, 1.5
Our task is to test these impressions before assenting to them. Is this impression accurate? Is it in the best interest to accept it? By examining our impressions, we prevent ourselves from being ruled by incorrect reactions and false beliefs.
Assent and Judgment
Once we receive an impression, we either assent to it—accept it as true—or withhold our assent. Epictetus insisted that this act of judgment is the very core of our moral agency. Impressions come to us, but judgment is ours. This is where philosophy meets real life—where we decide how to interpret what happens.
Desire and Aversion (Orexis and Ekklisis)
Desire, for Epictetus, is the impulse that drives us toward something; aversion is what makes us recoil. Both are natural, but they need to be disciplined. His famous advice:
“The faculty of desire purports to aim at securing what you want, while aversion purports to shield you from what you don’t. If you fail in your desire, you are unfortunate, if you experience what you would rather avoid you are unhappy… Restrict yourself to choice and refusal; and exercise them carefully, with discipline and detachment”
— Enchiridion, 2
He taught that we should direct desire toward things within our power—our own judgments and choices—and restrain aversion from things beyond our control—death, illness, or the actions of others. This way, our peace of mind cannot be shaken by external events.
The Proper Use of What Is in Our Power and What’s Our Responsiblity
Throughout his works, Epictetus returns to a fundamental division: some things are up to us (our judgments, desires, and actions), while others are not (our body, reputation, wealth). Only the former deserve our concern. The rest must be met with calm acceptance.
“We are responsible for some things, while there are others for which we cannot be held responsible. The former include our judgement, our impulse, our desire, aversion, and our mental faculties in general; the latter include the body, material possessions, our reputation, status – in a word, anything not in our power to control. The former are naturally free, unconstrained, and unimpeded, while the latter are frail, inferior, subject to restraint – and none of our affair.”
— Enchiridion, 1
Epictetus’s Influence on Stoicism
Epictetus’s Discourses are filled with vivid, sometimes humorous dialogues with students, where he uses sharp questioning to expose sloppy thinking and moral confusion. He challenges us to take responsibility for our own character rather than blame external circumstances.
His Enchiridion distills these insights into a concise handbook—a handy guide for living wisely. With these tools—testing impressions, mastering desire and aversion, focusing on what’s within our control—he offered a path to a kind of freedom that no one, not even a slave master, could take away.
Ultimately, Epictetus was not teaching detachment for the sake of being aloof or repressed. His teaching on Stoicism is a disciplined yet compassionate approach to life, grounded in the conviction that our truest freedom is found within, in our capacity to choose how we think and respond to the world. That he taught all of this verbally—without writing—reminds us that philosophy is not a matter of simply reading alone but of living and implementing the ideas in human conversation and the world.